AnnotatedBibliography

Please write your name and the citation for any articles you find that you'd like to use towards the annotated bibliography assignment.

Shannon Montague-- unedited citations and annotations 1. Aronson, J., Zimmerman, J., & Carlos, L. (1998, April). //Improving student achievement by extending school: Is it just a matter of time?// San Francisco: WestEd. This report by WestEd, a nonprofit research and service agency that states to work with education to promote excellence, achieve equality and improve learning for children, youth and adults asks, if there is a simple relationship between time spent learning in the classroom and student achievement. Since 1983’s A Nation at Risk, policymakers have been debating if extending the school year and day, a recommendation in the report, would help to improve school achievement. The research on time’s affect on learning is empirical, policy related and anecdotal. This report focuses on the empirical data. What the author claims is lacking in the empirical research is a study measuring the impact on extending the school year not the school day. Also there is a lack of longitudinal studies. There is also the question as to what do researchers mean by time, whether it is simply the school day (allocated time) or how the day is spent (engaged time or academic learning time). Academic learning time is the most difficult for researchers to measure. Since there is a variety in what researchers of the past have studied, it is difficult to look at the entire body of research and come up with conclusive findings. However, the authors argue that there is a fairly consistent pattern: 1) There is little or no relationship between allocated time and student achievement; 2) There is some relationship between engaged time and achievement; and 3) There is a larger relationship between academic learning time and achievement. The authors argue that policy makers might find it easier to focus on quantity instead of quality but the focus needs to be on academic learning time and quality of instruction.

2. Cobb, R. B., Abate, S., & Baker, D. (1999, February 8). Effects on students of a 4x4 junior high school block scheduling program. //Education Policy Analysis Archives, 7//(3). Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/‌epaa/‌v7n3.html This empirical journal article explores effects on students and their opinions of a scheduling system known as block scheduling. Block scheduling originated from the push in the 1980’s for public school reform as a way for schools to allocate more time to core curricular subjects. For this study the researchers used a matched control group design with variations based on six hypotheses being addressed. The student groups being tested were junior high school students and beginning high school students with four dependent variables: 1) grade point average; 2) standardized achievement test scores; 3) attendance and 4) preparation for advanced course work. The six hypotheses were: 1) and 2) Junior high school students and high school student who experienced block scheduling would evidence higher grade point averages than their matched counterparts. 3) and 4) Junior high school students and senior high school students who experience block scheduling will evidence higher standardized test scores. 5) Attendance rates at the block junior high school during the years in which they experienced block scheduling will not differ significantly from same-year attendance rate of matched counterparts. 6) High school students who experienced block scheduling in junior high school will enroll in advanced coursework at a significantly higher rate than their matched counterparts. The findings of the study concluded no difference in the the two groups in registration for advanced mathematics courses or mathematics achievement. The block schedule students performed significantly less well on standardized math achievement tests than their peers with traditional schedules. No difference was found in standardized reading and writing test scores. The study did find consistently higher grade point averages in favor of block schedule students. The study did not test for statistically significant differences, but looked visually at attendance rates, finding no difference. This study did finding interesting questions involving gender and ethnicity and argued that those need to be embedded in future design studies. Also the argued to “ratchet up” the contrast between block and traditional scheduling by reviewing the many ways a block schedule can be implemented.

3. Farbman, D., & Kaplan, C. (2005, Fall). //Time for a change: The promise of extended-time schools for promoting student achievement//. Boston, Massachusetts: Massachusetts 2020. This research report is by Massachusetts 2020, a nonprofit operation foundation with a mission to “expand educational and economic opportunities for children and families across Massachusetts.” This report looks at “extended-time schools” and analyzes their effective practices. The argument for extended learning time, according to research, is it allows for: 1) more time on task; 2) depth and breadth of subject study; 3) greater opportunities for planning and professional development; 4) greater opportunities for enrichment and experiential learning and 5) stronger adult-child relationships.This study looked at urban schools that where either K-8, 5/‌6-8 or 7-12 with more than 50% of the student population qualifying for free or reduced school lunch and incorporating unique approaches to using additional time with positive learning outcomes being shown. These schools were either public, charter or pilot schools. Preference was given to schools within Massachusetts, but KIPP Academy, Bronx, NY was also studied. Each school was given a one to two day site visit that included classroom observations, interviews and focus groups with administrators, teachers, students and parents. The six core questions were: 1)How does the school use the additional time (ie, structure its schedule for students) and how are the needs of the students and teachers addressed through the schedule design? 2) How does the academic program capitalize on the extended time and what are the outcomes for student learning? 3) How does the additional time affect staffing (eg, teacher schedules, pay, recruitment, job expectations, etc.)? 4) What are the added costs associated with the extended time and how are revenues generated to cover these additional costs? 5) What are the reactions of students, teachers, and parents to the non-traditional school schedule? 6) What other factors, in addition to extended learning time, contribute to the school’s effectiveness?

The research report found that there was no one correct model of an extended time school, but that all schools shared one belief, that more learning time creates success. The positive effects found were that students spent more time on task than students do in schools operating on a conventional schedule, teachers were able to cover more material and more in-depth, teachers were able to tailor sessions to their students’ individual learning needs and teachers were allowed more time to build camaraderie among each other in a community with professional development opportunities. The study also showed challenges, including funding to pay for additional staff time. Interestingly, the study did find that the per-pupil cost per hour begins to drop off with the additional hours added.

4. Silva, E. (2007, January). //On the clock: Rethinking the way schools use time//. Washington, DC: Education Sector. This research report from Education Sector, an independent think tank that “challenges conventional thinking in education policy,” examines the relationship between time and learning and suggests that improving quality of instruction is at least as important as increasing quantity of time in schools. The report examines the education and politics behind “time reform,” the impact of various time reforms on schools and makes recommendations to policy makers on how to best use time in and out of school to improve student achievement. This report notes the difference in time because all time is not equal in schools. The author divides time into four segments: allocated school time, allocated class time, instructional time and academic learning time. The report argus that any extended time proposal must focus on expanding the right kind of time-- academic learning time. When comparing American students to their international counterparts the research notes that there are many variables that affect the quality of time spent in the classroom including teaching practices, student culture and curricula and general educational philosophy. There is also argument that not all students need extended time and that summer learning loss is more profound in low-income students than middle-income students. The report argues that in order for extended time to be an effective school reform, policymakers must look at how time is currently spent in school and teacher effectiveness. Also, what do teachers and students want more time for? Paying attention to out of school learning is also imperative to engage students after school, on weekends, and during winter and summer vacations before implementing costly extended-time schools.  

__**Shannon Baker**__  **1.** **Coleman, M. R. (2001). Middle schools: New trends and issues.** //**Gifted Child Today,**// //**24**//**(4), 20-21.** Abstract: This article explores three current trends in middle schools: the growing emphasis on curriculum; a redesign of the "chat" time or the advisoru-advisee period; and the expansion of transition planning from the narrow focus on just academic to include social, emotional, vocational and moral development.

Abstract: This article discusses the issue of schools limiting the opportunities for children's physical, cognitive, social-emotional, and creative development that recess affords. Red Rover, hopscotch, jump rope, chase, telling secrets, hanging out, making friends, losing friends--these familiar pursuits of childhood recess are vividly memorable. While these are common memories for adults, many children now attending elementary school are experiencing a different reality. Today's climate of increasing school accountability and intense focus on strictly cognitive performance has forced a restructuring of the school day. In the aftermath of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, time literally can mean money. Schools are eliminating activities deemed unnecessary or frivolous, especially those whose contributions to academic achievement are not "scientifically proven." Current research suggests that as many as 40 percent of school districts throughout the United States are reducing or deleting recess as they focus additional time and resources on teaching and learning (American Association for the Child's Right to Play, 2004). Current studies challenge the idea that limiting recess will benefit children's academic performance, however. Research on the human brain informs that excessive and/or unrelieved periods of instruction can, in fact, impair one's ability to learn and retain material (Healy, 1998; Jensen, 1998). Here, the author presents other research in response to this issue.
 * 2.**  **Zygmunt-Fillwalk, E., & Bilello, T. E. (2005). Parents' victory in reclaiming recess for their children.** //**Childhood Education,**// //**82**//**(1), 19.**

Abstract: Transitions can be difficult at any age; however, the move from elementary school to middle school, coupled with the onset of adolescence, is often associated with a myriad of psychological and academic declines. One strategy currently used to "ready" elementary students for middle school is a departmentalized organizational structure. The purpose of this study was to investigate young adolescents' self-concept and classroom environment perceptions as they transitioned from two different elementally organizational structures into one middle school. Data were collected from 125 fifth-grade students who participated in a middle school transition program. Findings suggest that participants' perceptions of self-concept and classroom climate did not differ prior to or after the transition to middle school, based on the elementary organizational structure they experienced. However, time effects suggest that students' self-concept did significantly increase across the transition to middle school, while their perceptions of classroom climate were mixed.
 * 3.**  **Parker, A. K. (2009). Elementary organizational structures and young adolescents' self-concept and classroom environment perceptions across the transition to middle school.** //**Journal of Research in Childhood Education,**// //**23**//**(3), 325.**

Abstract: In response to the 2000 Virginia state writing prompt, eighth grade students wrote a letter of advice to a sixth grader coming to middle school for the first time. A purposeful sample of more than 10,000 writing responses was collected. Content analysis of a random sample of 350 responses revealed themes of advice for students negotiating the transition to middle school. Content analysis revealed that organizational themes were mentioned more frequently than personal/social or academic themes. The most frequently mentioned themes in each category were choosing and changing classes or electives, improving study habits, and making and managing friends. Data also revealed wide diversity in advice and a robust sense of student agency, including recommendations of student attitudes and attributes that were deemed important for new middle school students. Implications for middle school personnel are discussed and future research directions are presented.
 * 4.** **Akos, P. (2004). Advice and student agency in the transition to middle school.** //**RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level Education,**// //**27**//**(2), 1-11.**

Abstract: This study (an impact evaluation of the Chilean full //school day// program) uses difference-in-differences to estimate the effect of a large increase in instructional //time// on high //school//students' academic achievement. The main findings are (i) the program had a positive effect on students' achievement in both mathematics and language; (ii) the effect-size on language achievement was 0.05-0.07 standard deviations and not sensitive to control for covariates, different control groups, and historical trends; (iii) the effect on mathematics achievement was not sensitive to control for covariates, but was sensitive to use different control groups, and historical trends; the effect-size on mathematics achievement ranged from 0.00 to 0.12 standard deviations; and (iv) the program effect has been constant over //time//. Finally, there is evidence suggesting that the program had larger positive effects on rural students, students who attended public schools, and students situated in the upper part of the achievement distribution. Abstract: In the context of a quasi-experimental research design, literacy data obtained on students were examined to assess relationships between kindergarten program model (full- vs. half-//day//) and student literacy outcomes. Application of multilevel modeling techniques to the //time// series data collected from kindergarteners in economically disadvantaged //school// contexts in a large southwestern //school// district revealed that students exposed to a full //day// of instruction had greater literacy growth than their peers in half-//day// classrooms. Further examination of the program model results revealed that the relative efficacy of full-//day// kindergarten tended to be greater in smaller class size environments. These results, if replicated, suggest that full-//day//kindergarten initiatives targeted toward students from disadvantaged backgrounds may be more successful when implemented in classrooms with relatively small student enrollments. Implications for instructional policy and practice are discussed.
 * 5.** **Bellei, C. (2009). Does lengthening the school day increase students' academic achievement? results from a natural experiment in Chile.** //**Economics of Education Review,**// //**28**//**(5), 629-640.**
 * 6.** **Zvoch, K., Reynolds, R. E., & Parker, R. P. (2008). Full-day kindergarten and student literacy growth: Does a lengthened school day make a difference?** //**Early Childhood Research Quarterly,**// //**23**//**(1), 94-107.**

No Abstract
 * 7. Knox, W. F. (1937). An investigation of the length of the elementary-school day. //The Elementary School Journal, 38(4),// 291 - 295.

** __Patrick Ko__


 * Gewertz, Catherine (2009). Consensus On Increasing Learning Time Builds The Education Digest v. 74 no. 7 (March 2009) p. 48-54**

This article summarizes and highlights the complexities of the current efforts in school time extension. Adding time usually means extending the school day or school year to accommodate more class time or programs that meet the needs for more knowledge and skills required for students today. Areas reported include school, government, nonprofit initiatives, charter schools, the cross-fertilization of the education, youth-development, and after-school worlds, cost, scheduling strategies, and the youth worker’s role. Noteworthy discussions include the debate of more class time in response to NCLB, the academic-standards movement, and critiques of using time without a sense of relational connection for students. Specific examples such as the KIPP program and the Massachusetts Expanded Learning Time initiative provide areas for more research and understanding.


 * Cuban, Larry (2008). The Perennial Reform: Fixing School Time. Phi Delta Kappan v. 90 no. 4 (December 2008) p. 240-50**

Education critics often call for longer school days and years, but this article states that there is little research to support such demands and several reasons why little will change. It is a solution that is least connected to what happens in classrooms or what Americans want from public schools. Specifically, cost, weak research, and the importance of conservative social goals to taxpayers and voters explain why the proposals to fix time I schools have failed. Business elites call for more time by connecting declining global economic competitiveness with school time. Policy elites, limited to budget and electoral cycles, drives policies in schools that don’t address what matters to teachers and students. Parents want schools to act as extended child care centers. Teachers never have enough time, and students want less time in school – there are conflicting goals and interests on many levels. But the goal that really matters – improving the quality of the time spent gets lost in these complicated conflicts of interest.


 * Moir, Taylor, Reville, Wood, Elliot, Davis, Chen. How Much Time for Learning: A Tour of the Archives. Education Week (September 24, 2008)**

This article combines commentaries from 1991 to 2007, bringing together diverse voices including teachers, an university president, and an assistant U.S. secretary of education. All of them call for longer school days and years. Their arguments include the usual, common sense ones such as deepening subject matters, broadening curriculum, greater interaction, and more accommodation for different rates of learning.

 Lauren Hamilton

Crawford, Marilyn. (2008) Think Inside the Clock. //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">Phi Delta Kappan 90 //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">(4), 251-256

Abstract: Based on 10 years of experience as a school administrator in the early years of Kentucky's reforms and on eight years providing technical assistance to districts and state education departments in eight states, I've learned where and why policies involving time don't fit practice. The central office and school teams collaborated on creating research-based strategies for using the embedded professional development time to move student achievement.

Cellano, Donna & Neuman, Susan. (2008) When Schools Close, the Knowledge Gap Grows. //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">Phi Delta Kappan 90 //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">(4). p. 256-262

Abstract: With more than 95% of all public libraries offering Internet access, about 10% of all Internet users now gain access to the Internet through a public library.4 And even though poor children are less likely to have computers in their homes, the number of poor children who have frequent access to the Internet through a school or the library is growing steadily.5 Physical access to a computer, however, does not always guarantee a growth of knowledge. In this case, children from higher-income families, through the competent use of information sources, such as books and computers, will gain substantially higher levels of information over less-advantaged peers who use information sources in a different way.9 WHEN SCHOOL IS OUT This gap grows even wider during out-of-school time. Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson have long documented how students from both middle-income and low-income areas achieve at the same levels during the school year.10 But in the summer, poorer children experience the so-called summer slide, as their better advantaged peers participate in specialized camps, library visits, and museum trips.

Weiss, Joel & Brown, Robert S. (2003). Telling Tales Over Time: Constructing and Deconstructing the School Calendar. //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">Teachers College Record 105 //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">(9) p. 1720-1757

The September-to-June school calendar has been a fixture of North America for almost a century. Its origins have usually been told as an unexamined tale attributed to features of nineteenth century rural society. We challenge this interpretation by suggesting that multiple pressures arising from increasing urbanization influenced its roots. We present information on the importance of the summer holiday in the development of compulsory schooling in several North American jurisdictions, with the main evidence from Ontario, the most populous province in Canada. We suggest, along with Gold (2002), that this development had wider applicability in several Northeastern and Midwestern American states. Beyond the issue of having an accurate story line, we examine why there has been such resistance in recent times to changing the school year. The school calendar may be another example of an enduring institutional form referred to by Tyack and Tobin as a "grammar of schooling" that resisted fundamental change in the twentieth century. Viewing the school calendar's ties with changes over time in the construction of other clocks of society may enable us to rethink the format of the contemporary school calendar. Finally, we consider the school calendar as part of a larger, ongoing discussion of what constitutes effectiveness of schools. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

Smith, BetsAnn. (2000). Quantity Matters: Annual Instructional Time in an Urban School System. //Educational Administration Quarterly, 36//(5). p. 652-682

Abstract: This article shares a series of instructional time analyses to illustrate how school man- agement, social and cultural welfare programs, high-stakes testing, system policies, and a flawed notion of organizational efficiency combine to cripple enormous blocks of annual instructional time in a large urban district. Data analyzed were classroom obser- vation records, field notes, teacher interviews, school calendars, and system documents. School trends that fragment and erode instructional time and reformers’ reluctance to rethink instructional time are discussed. In closing, administrators are urged to view the allocation and management of time as one of their most important and powerful functions, and actions to recover instructional time for teachers and students are outlined.